The Battle-Worn Fighter

 

“Boxer at Rest”, Greek, Hellenistic period, various dates from 330-50 BCE, Bronze with inlaid copper, H. 128 cm, Museuo Nazionale Romano – Palazzo Massimo alle Terme

When we think of Greek sculptures, we automatically think of them as “pretty”.

The archetypal image of a Greek sculpture is a beautiful, young nude male or female, with perfect facial features, flawless bodies and smooth skin. We often imagine these statues as being made of solid white marble. We envision a kind of ethereal serenity or wisdom emanating from them. There were a great many things that Ancient Greek sculptors were remarkable at, and creating idealized forms was definitely one of them. But perhaps one of their most exemplary achievements was the ability to also portray the human form in such a way that was as close to reality as possible. Indeed, this was quite a feat at the time, and it’s no wonder that the Romans— and Italian Renaissance artists later down the line— would be inspired by Greek visual art styles, particularly the Hellenistic Pergamene Style.

But what exactly does “Hellenistic” and “Pergamene Style” mean? “Hellenistic” comes from the German word Hellenismus, which scholars and historians used to refer to the period in Greek history that sprung up during the reign of Alexander the Great, wherein Greece was (forcibly) unified. The resulting empire also spread to Asia Minor, the Near East, and Egypt, and thus gave rise to in a visual art style that was a fusion of both Greek and Oriental traditions.¹ For sculpture, this signaled an evolution from the perfect, idealized figures of the Classical period, to the more dramatic, more lifelike Hellenistic figures. Subtle changes from static to expressive faces, stationary to dynamic poses, etc. added an element of not only realism, but also familiarity and humanity to the sculptures.

This distinction is what is known as the “Pergamene Style”. Named after the great city of Pergamum, also known as Pergamon, in Asia Minor (whose culture heavily influenced the Hellenistic kings) it refers to a school of thought that sought to do away with Classical idealization of the body in lieu of rougher, “grittier” portrayals. For male forms in sculpture specifically, this style emphasized musculature and motion. Hellenistic male nudes are noticeably burlier than their classical counterparts. Their bodies would also be articulated in much more dynamic positions, often complemented by pained and anguished expressions rather than calm or serene ones.² It’s possible that this stylistic choice was done in order to reflect the hardships of the lives of mortals as opposed to the idyllic lives of the gods. Another interesting development during the Hellenistic period was the inclusion of distinguished mortals— athletes in particular— in sculpture, along with the standard Greek heroes and gods.

I would now like to talk about a sculpture known as the Boxer at Rest— one of my favorite Hellenistic sculptures. I first encountered this sculpture as a plaster replica during my undergraduate years, and very much liked the way the subject was portrayed realistically and without the aforementioned exaggerated idealization commonly associated with the more prominent Classical Greek sculptures. This sculpture depicts a seated male— a boxer, possibly in his late thirties or forties, nude with the exception of his caestus (bound leather fighting gloves).³ His head is tilted to the right and his face sports a serious expression. There are several scars on his face, with a few more scattered on other parts of his body such as his shoulders. His eye sockets are empty and his nose appears to be broken.

Being made of bronze, a material known for being easily melted down and reused, the sculpture is actually completely hollow on the inside. The empty eye sockets is a clear indication of this, though it’s speculated that he may have had painted glass eyes at some point, much like other Greek bronze statues. ⁴ Sculptures such as these were made via hollow-casting, a technique which first involved the creation of a full-size clay model of the intended statue; followed by separate master molds being made around the model, which are dried and then reattached. The result was a hollow wax model in the shape of the original, which would later be covered by another clay mold. Liquid clay was then poured into the mold, creating a “core”, melting the wax in the process and allowing room for the actual molten bronze. Once the bronze cooled and hardened, the mold and core were removed, leaving the final hollow statue.⁵ In contrast to sculptures made in stone, bronze statues were not painted, or “polychromed”. Instead, the artist relied on the material itself for color, oftentimes mixing in different metals in order to achieve a certain look. Copper and silver were the most commonly used inlays for bronze sculpture, often shaped into teeth, eyelashes, lips, and nipples. ⁶ Early Classical bronze statues such as the Riace Warriors and Zeus are well-known examples of this technique.

“Riace Warriors”, Greek, Early Classical period, circa 460-450 BCE, Bronze with inlaid copper and silver, H. 198 cm

“Zeus (or Poseidon)”, Early Classical period, circa 460-450 BCE, Bronze, H. 208 cm

The Boxer stands out physically because of the way he is portrayed. Many have commented that the Boxer, while not outright ugly, does not look as classically attractive as most Greek sculptures. True, the Boxer is not beautiful, at least when compared to other male sculptures from this period, particularly those of the gods Apollo and Hermes, the quintessential “pretty boys” of Greek art.

“Apollo Belvedere / Pythian Apollo”, Greek, Hellenistic period, circa 120-140 BCE, copy of bronze original from approx. 350–325 BCE, White marble, H. 224 cm

Praxiteles, “Hermes and the Infant Dionysus”, Greek, Hellenistic period, approx. 4^th century BCE, White marble, H. 212 cm

Also, the Boxer is very muscular, but his physique does not look “perfect”, especially when compared to a monumental heroic sculpture like the Roman Farnese Hercules. Whereas Hercules’ physique is proportional and makes him look like a professional bodybuilder or superhero, the Boxer’s musculature is actually imbalanced. He is “top heavy”— his chest, back, shoulders and core are big and bulky, but his legs are lanky in comparison.

Glykon, reproduced from original by Lysippos, “Farnese Hercules”, Roman, circa 216 CE, copy of original from 4^th century BCE, Marble, H. 317 cm

Also compare the Boxer to the Early Classical bronze statue Zeus previously mentioned above, and notice how much their physiques differ. This could either be an indication of how the Greeks changed their aesthetic “type” over time, or simply opted for a more naturalistic portrayal of figures during this period.

Rather than relying on the norms of beauty established during the Classical period, the Boxer’s appeal comes from the way the formal elements of art come into play. Allow me to describe them below:

The grittiness of the Boxer can be attributed to the rough, harsh lines and contours on his body. Every muscle striation has been painstakingly carved in detail. His face in particular is angular, severely battered, bruised, and covered in scars and “bloodstains” made of inlaid copper. He even shows “cauliflower ear”, a deformity caused by repeated blows to the side of the head. His facial expression is defined by downward-sloping diagonal lines, most prominently seen in his furrowed brow and slight frown. His hair and beard is where the lines are most visible. While starting out curved and neat, these taper into spikes that further add to the overall roughness and angularity of the figure.

The Boxer likewise has volumes that create the gesture of his pose. “Gesture” refers to the framework of the figure that communicates the idea behind the pose to the audience, and is a way for the artist to show story and composition alongside proportion, anatomy, weight and balance.⁷ Composed of organic shapes that display balance, the Boxer may be seated, but his body is still tense. The way his body is positioned seems to indicate a transitory pose— I like to call this particular tableau “subtle apprehension”.  Note how his arms are being supported on his thighs, yet do not appear relaxed. In fact, his entire body does not look relaxed; he could very well be having a five-minute break before the next round of his match and it isn’t hard to imagine that he could be breathing heavily, sweating profusely, and ready to stand up and fight again at any second.

The Boxer, being made of bronze and copper, mostly has dull, earthy tones that range from a dark yellow-brown (for the body) to a somewhat pale orange (for the scars). If you look closely enough, you can also see “bloodstains” made of copper on his gloves, arms and thighs. There are also pale green patches all over his body, caused by the oxidation of the metal. For the most part, these patches do not alter the work significantly. As discussed earlier, the use of colors are generally limited in bronze statuary, as the artist relies on the material itself and does not paint the work afterwards, instead mixing in different metals during the casting process in order to achieve a certain look.

Nevertheless, the fact that the Boxer was created in bronze and not in stone or white marble adds character to the sculpture. This is mostly achieved not by the color, but by the value. The darker tones give the impression of an individual who is worn but determined, contemplative but prepared, as an athlete should be. To some, the dark colors may give off an air of intimidation, but again, it can be argued that this just adds to his character. And when placed under directional light, details of his body such as musculature etc. stand out magnificently in contrast to the shadows.

The texture of the sculpture is matte, with several scuffs and indentations that were either made deliberately or happened due to age. It’s notable how the inlaid copper forms bumps on the surface of the sculpture, creating the illusion of bruises and scars that have thickened and hardened over time.

Lastly, space is one of the strongest attributes of the Boxer, as the sculpture is meant to be seen from multiple points of view. Each perspective view of the sculpture not only reveals new details that may not be obvious at first glance, but also tells a story. The frontal view, for example, shows that he has kynodésme, an infibulated penis (tied-up foreskin) that served both practical and aesthetic purposes for Ancient Greek athletes.⁸ Side views, on the other hand, show bruises on his shoulders, while the back view emphasizes his musculature. Looking closer at his hands shows the detail of his leather gloves, and his head, as mentioned previously, reveals scars and other deformities. Looking even closer at his mouth shows that it’s slightly open, which could imply him breathing through his mouth rather than his nostrils due to exhaustion. He also has a) either no teeth; or b) teeth that have been knocked in or out as a result of his matches. Also, as with most statues, negative space plays a key role by giving the audience enough room to look at the Boxer from these multiple points of view.

In summary, the Boxer at Rest is one of my favorite Hellenistic sculptures because of how different it is compared to archetypal Greek sculptures. Here, the artist made a deliberate choice to differentiate the Boxer by portraying a mortal rather than a legendary hero or god. He is an athlete, but neither a young nor handsome one. The appeal of this sculpture comes from the relative roughness and angularity of the figure— the well-defined but imbalanced musculature, the angularity of the face, and the way the formal elements come together to illustrate and support the general feeling of weariness and apprehension. The Boxer is a great example of Hellenistic sculpture that comes as close as possible to portraying a subject with all of its imperfections. It is a snapshot of the life of an Ancient Greek athlete, presented in its gritty entirety, without the glamour of idealization.

NOTES:

1. John Boardman. Greek Art: Fourth Edition (London: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1996), 226.
2. Ibid, 228.
3. Séan Hemingway. “The Boxer: an ancient masterpiece comes to the Met”, 2013, accessed September 11, 2017, http://www.metmuseum.org/blogs/now-at-the-met/features/2013/the-boxer.
4. Fred S. Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya. Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: Twelfth Edition (Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2005), 130.
5. Ibid, 131.
6. Ibid, 129.
7. Michael Hampton. Figure Drawing Design and Invention (Riverside: Michael Hampton, 2013), 3-4.
8. Stephen Miller. Ancient Greek Athletics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), 12-13.